The Organization Of This Book

In Part 1 of this book we present theoretical background information. Chapter 1 provides an introduction to discourse and discourse analysis, whereas Chapter 2 (Pragmatics in Discourse analysis) provides further background on the importance of context and shared knowledge for appropriate production and adequate interpretation of discourse.

There are two basic frameworks that underlie the approach proposed in this book and guide its organization (i.e, a language knowledge framework and a discourse processing framework). We are using the term “knowledge” to refer to what cognitive psychologists (Anderson,1985) call declarative knowledge, which refers to things such as facts, rules, and images that one is able to describe explicitly. In term of learning a language, this type of knowledge refers to things such as knowing the grammar rules and word meanings explicitly and being able to state them. We are using the term “Processing” to refer to what the same cognitive psychologist call procedural knowledge, which is the ability to apply complex cognitive skills automatically in appropriate ways without even thinking about them. This ability enables language users to produce and interpret written and spoken discourse effectively.

In part 2 of this book we consider the three language resources (phonology,grammar, and vocabulary) and pragmatics when language users communicate, both as receivers and producers.

Depending on the type and extent of knowledge and experience a learner has, different processing strategies for interpreting and producing discourse will be activated or developed. Nonnative language users often lack the proficiency that would allow them to process easily the spoken and written discourse to which they are exposed in a second language. An important way in which they can compensate for their lack of knowledge is for them to rely heavily on contextual features and prior knowledge to process new information. This is referred to as top-down or knowledge-driven interpretation. For example, when reading a difficult article, the reader might consider where the article appeared, who wrote it, and what the tittle is in order to facilitate interpretation of a linguistically difficult text.

In contrast language processing that relies heavily on linguistic features such as spelling pattern, grammatical infections, and word choices is referred to as bottom-up or data-driven interpretation which in some cases is facilitated nonverbal cues

such as gestures, illustrations and so on. Effective language users are able to combine top-down and bottom-up processing in arriving at reasonable interpretation of what the speaker/writer intended.

 Figure 1.2 presents an integrated picture of the discourse processing framework. When top-down processing is activated, language users combine their prior knowledge (content schemata) and socio cultural and discourse knowledge (formal schemata) with their assessment of pragmatic and contextual features relevant to the task at hand. All these elements are channeled through pragmatic considerations in order to produce and interpret discourse. When bottom-up processing occurs, language users combine language knowledge with specific and local communication features in order to produce or interpret discourse. Sometimes top-down processing takes priority at other times bottom-up concerns require more attention, but ideally there is purposeful integration of both types of processing. Successful discourse processing also requires metacognitive awareness, which enables language users to fine tune their production/interpretation process. Ideally discourse processing involves automatic procedural knowledge;however in some cases it is useful and necessary to active nonautomatic declarative knowledge to correct errors and to resolve ambiguities or contradictions in the production or interpretation of discourse.

In figures 1.1 and 1.2 knowledge components appear inside ovals content knowledge, discourse knowledge, and language knowledge. Processing elements appear inside triangles: assessment of contextual features, consideration of pragmatic features and processing strategies: metacognition is inside a diamond and spoken or written discourse

(product or text) is always represented inside the central rectangular box. Discourse and pragmatic are sometimes represented with two shapes simultaneously since these two areas can reflect both knowledge and processing. Thus the term “discourse” may occur in a rectangle and/or an oval. And the term “pragmatic” may occur inside a triangle or inside an oval and a triangle simultaneously. These visual shapes will be used consistently in the specific adaptations of these two figures that we present in each chapter throughout the book.

Effective language users shift easily form one discourse processing mode to the other, depending on the requirements of the production/interpretation task. For example, the reader encountering an unfamiliar word in a text will use the word’s syntactic position and morphological endings (i.e, bottom-up processing) to arrive at an interpretation.

In Part 3 of this book we treat the four language skills (listening,reading,writing, and speaking) in terms of our discourse processing framework, which we will discuss in greater detail later.

In addition to elaborating on both the language knowledge framework and the discourse processing framework that we have introduced here, we will endeavor to make our approach to language teaching practical by suggesting throughout the next pedagogical applications that we believe are consistent with a discourse perspective on a language and language teaching. The discussion questions and activities at the and of each chapter are designed to facilitate understanding and application of the approach we are proposing. The suggestions for further reading are intended to simulate additional thinking of the topics and issues we raise.