Place of articulation
As stated earlier, different consonantal sounds results when we change the shape of the oral cavity by moving the lips and tongue, the articulators, and change the place of articulation in the oral cavity. The major consonantal place features are given below. As you read the description of each class of sounds, pronounce them and try to feel which articulators are moving and to where.
Bilabials: [p] [b] [m]
When we produce a [p], [b], or [m] we articulate by bringing both lips together. These sound are there called bilabials.
Labiodentals : [f] [v]
We also use our lips to form [f] and [v] as in fine [ faɪn] and vine [vaɪn]. To produce these sounds we are articulate by touching the bottom lip to the upper teeth, which is why these sounds we are called labiodental, labio- referring to lips and -dental to teeth.
Interdentals : [θ] [ð]
[θ] and [ð] are both represented in English spelling by the th in the words thin [θɪn], ether [iθə], then [ðen] and either [iðə]. To articulate these interdental ('between the teeth') sounds, you insert the tip of your tongue between the upper and lower teeth.
Alveolars : [t] [d] [n] [s] [z] [l] [r]
Alveolar sounds are articulated by raising the front part of the tongue to the bony tooth ridge called the alveolar ridge (see figure 6.10. If you say deal [dil], Neil [nil], teal[til], seal [sil], zeal [zil], you should fell your tongue touch or nearly touch the tooth ridge s you produce the first sounds in all these words.
To produce the lateral [l], the tongue is raised to the alveolar ridge with the sides of the tongue down, permitting the air to escape laterally over the sides of the tongue.
The sound [r] is produced in variety of ways. Its most usual variant in Australia and New Zealand is quite vowel-like: the tongue is raised to the alveolar ridge but produces very little obstruction to the airstream. In US varieties of English, it is common to curl the tip of your tongue back behind the alveolar ridge while producing [r] such sounds are also called retroflex sounds. In some languages, the [r] may be an alveolar trill, produced by the tip of the tongue vibrating againts the roof of the mouth. There are other symbols which can be used for these different r sounds, and in a very detailed phonetic description we would include some of them. For the purposes of this book, though, we will use the symbols [r] for all the varieties produced by speakers of English.
Palatials : [ʃ] [ʒ] [tʃ] [dʒ]
To produce the sounds in the middle of the words mesher [meʃə] and measure [meʒə], the front part of the tongue is raised to a point on the hard palate just behind the alveolar ridge. The voiceless [ʃ] sound in mesher (spelt sh) and the voiced [ʒ] sound in measure (spelt s) are palatal sounds (sometimes also called alveopalatals).
The alveopalatal region of the roof of the mouth is also the place of articulation for the production of [tʃ] and [dʒ], the sounds that begin and and the words chruch and judge.
Velars : [k] [g] [ŋ ]
Another class of sounds is produced by raising the back of the tongue to the soft palate or velum. The initial and final sounds of the words kick [kɪk], gig [gɪig] and the final sounds of the words back [bæk], and bag [bæg] and bang [bæŋ] [k], [g], and [ŋ] are produced in this way and are called velar sounds.
Uvulars : [R] [q] [G]
Uvulars sounds are produced by raising the back of the tongue to the uvula. The r in French is uvular and is symbolised by [R]. Uvular sounds are also found in other languages. Arabic for example has two uvular sounds symbolised as [q] and [G].
Gottals : [ʔ] [h]
The [h] sound that starts words such as house {haʊs], who [hu], and hair [heə] is a gottal sound. The glottis is open; no other modification of the airstream mechanisms occurs in the mouth. The tongue and lips are usually in the position for the production of the following vowel as the airstream passes through the open glottis.
If the air is stopped completely at the glottis by tightly closed vocal cords, the sound produced is a gottal stop. This is the sound sometimes used instead of [t] in button and Latin. It also may occur in colloquial speech at the end of words such as don't, won't or cen't. In some dialects (noticeably the London variety called Cockney) it regularly replaces the tt sound in words such as bottle and glottal. The glottal stop does not occur in the speech of all speakers of English; but if you say 'uh-uh-uh-uh' with one 'uh' straight after another and do not sustain the vowel sound, you will be producing gottal stops between the vowels. In some languages, the gottal stop functions as the stops [p], [t], and [k] do in English. The IPA symbol for a gottal stop looks someting like a question mark without the dot on the bottom [ʔ].
Table 6.2 summaries the classification of the consonants of English by their place of articulation. The gottal stop is not included in this table since it is used only by some speakers in some words. The uvular sounds do not occur in English.
